In recent years, there has been an increase in suicide rates in young women as opposed to young men. In addition, certain factors such as alcohol use, military service and standing, ethnicity, and sexuality have led to an increase in suicide rates across both genders.

Claremont McKenna College

Include any and all thoughts of self-harm and or thoughts of ending one's life. Can be caused by psychiatric disorders and chronic illness.

Suicidal Ideations

1. Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (2017). Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: Meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms. Psychological Bulletin, 143(8), 783–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000102

4. Tsoutsi, V., Papadakaki, M., Yannis, G., Pavlou, D., Basta, M., Chliaoutakis, J., & Dikeos, D. (2023). Driving behaviour in depression based on subjective evaluation and data from a driving simulator. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(8), 5609. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20085609

5. Rubenstein, L. M., Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Flynn, M., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2015). The cyclical nature of depressed mood and future risk: Depression, rumination, and deficits in emotional clarity in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 42(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.015

10. Choi, Y., Lee, M., Lee, J. P., Park, M., Lee, S. Y., & Hahm, H. C. (2020). Disempowering parenting and Mental Health Among Asian American Youth: Immigration and Ethnicity. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101077

11. Liu, X.-Q., Guo, Y.-X., Zhang, W.-J., & Gao, W.-J. (2022). Influencing factors, prediction and prevention of depression in college students: A literature review. World Journal of Psychiatry, 12(7), 860–873. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v12.i7.860

12. Conner, K. R., Pinquart, M., & Gamble, S. A. (2009). Meta-analysis of depression and substance use among individuals with alcohol use disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 37(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.11.007

13. Rogers, D. L., Tanaka, M. J., Cosgarea, A. J., Ginsburg, R. D., & Dreher, G. M. (2023). How mental health affects injury risk and outcomes in athletes. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach, 16(2), 222–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381231179678

14. Steinert, C., Hofmann, M., Kruse, J., & Leichsenring, F. (2014). Relapse rates after psychotherapy for depression – stable long-term effects? A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 168, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.06.043

15. Melrose, S. (2011). Perfectionism and depression: Vulnerabilities nurses need to understand. Nursing Research and Practice, 2011, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/858497

16. Smalley, K. B., Warren, J. C., & Barefoot, K. N. (2016). Connection between depression and inability to fill prescriptions in rural FQHC patients with chronic disease. Journal of Rural Mental Health, 40(2), 113–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/rmh0000051

17. Raza, A., Partonen, T., Hanson, L. M., Asp, M., Engström, E., Westerlund, H., & Halonen, J. I. (2024). Daylight during winters and symptoms of depression and sleep problems: A within-individual analysis. Environment International, 183, 108413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.108413

18. Lin, L. yi, Sidani, J. E., Shensa, A., Radovic, A., Miller, E., Colditz, J. B., Hoffman, B. L., Giles, L. M., & Primack, B. A. (2016). Association between social media use and depression among U.S. young adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22466

19. Zare, H., Meyerson, N. S., Nwankwo, C. A., & Thorpe, R. J. (2022). How income and income inequality drive depressive symptoms in U.S. adults, does sex matter: 2005–2016. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 6227. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106227

20. Campbell, P. D., Miller, A. M., & Woesner, M. E. (2017). Bright Light Therapy: Seasonal Affective Disorder and Beyond. The Einstein journal of biology and medicine : EJBM, 32, E13–E25.

21. Jiang, Z., Egan, S. J., Greene, D., Frost, M., Ma, Y., & Shafran, R. (2025). The impact of perfectionism on treatment outcomes of mental health disorders: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2025.2547199

22. Komischke-Konnerup

References for Depression

States that suicidal ideation stems from feeling like a burden to others and feeling outcasted.

Interpersonal Psychological Theory of Suicidal Behavior

States that suicidal ideation stems from a variety of motivational and volitional factors, including but not limited to: defeat, entrapment, a lack of social support, level of fear on the topic of death, and perfectionism.

Integrated Motivational-Volitional Model

Women are more likely to use less dangerous suicide methods, such as medication overdose, while men are more likely to use highly lethal suicide methods, such as shooting. Researchers believe that these methods are strongly tied to societal gender roles.

Gender Differences (Suicidal Acts)

Defined as explicit thoughts of ending one's life. According to the Interpersonal Theory, active ideations occur when one feels like a burden and when one experiences thwarted belongingness. 

Active Suicidal Ideations

Defined as a desire for death rather than explicit thoughts of ending one's life. In addition, the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide posits that either perceived burdensomeness or thwarted belongingness is enough to trigger passive ideations.

Passive Suicidal Ideations

1. De Beurs, D., Fried, E. I., Wetherall, K., Cleare, S., O’ Connor, D. B., Ferguson, E., O’Carroll, R. E., & O’ Connor, R. C. (2019). Exploring the psychology of Suicidal Ideation: A theory driven network analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 120, 103419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2019.103419

2. Carretta, R. F., McKee, S. A., & Rhee, T. G. (2023). Gender differences in risks of suicide and suicidal behaviors in the USA: A narrative review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 25(12), 809–824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01473-1

3. Simion, S.-P., & Jung, H. (2025). Gender disparities in suicide: A deeper look into the complexity of suicidal acts. Legal Medicine, 77, 102679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2025.102679

4. Wastler, H. M., Khazem, L. R., Ammendola, E., Baker, J. C., Bauder, C. R., Tabares, J., Bryan, A. O., Szeto, E., & Bryan, C. J. (2022). An empirical investigation of the distinction between passive and active ideation: Understanding the latent structure of suicidal thought content. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 53(2), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12935

5. Oh, D. J., Shin, Y. C., Oh, K. S., Shin, D. W., Jeon, S. W., & Cho, S. J. (2023). Examining the links between burnout and suicidal ideation in diverse occupations. Frontiers in public health, 11, 1243920. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1243920

References for Suicidal Ideation

Researchers conducting a cross-sectional study on 12,083 19-65 aged participants in the South Korean workforce found that workers with exhaustion were more likely to develop suicidal ideation. In addition, exhausted workers with a low job position and educational background were more susceptible to developing suicidal ideation.

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