Karl Lashley was a psychologist who, about a century ago, investigated the physical basis of memory. His research methodology involved creating lesions, or intentional damage, in the cerebral cortex of animals like rats and monkeys. This was part of his pioneering search for the engram, the physical trace of a memory, which ultimately led to his formulation of the equipotentiality hypothesis.

Karl Lashley

Eric Kandel is a modern psychologist who has made significant progress in locating the physical traces of memory. He has spent decades studying the synapse and its critical role in controlling the flow of information through the neural circuits that are needed to store memories.

Eric Kandel

Endel Tulving is a notable cognitive psychologist who, along with his colleagues at the University of Toronto, conducted extensive research on memory. He is particularly known for his years-long study of patient K.C., whose case of severe amnesia provided significant insights into the functions of long-term memory.

Endel Tulving

In 1885, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus pioneered the experimental study of memory. His methodology involved memorizing lists of nonsense syllables and then systematically measuring his own retention by testing his ability to relearn the lists at various time intervals. This work led to his discovery of the forgetting curve.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

William Bousfield (1935) was a researcher who demonstrated semantic encoding through an experiment in which participants memorized a list of 60 words divided into four hidden categories of meaning. He showed that people tend to recall words grouped by their semantic categories, indicating they pay attention to word meanings during encoding.

William Bousfield

Paivio (1986) is a researcher who proposed that high-imagery words build a stronger memory because they are encoded both visually and semantically.

Allan Paivio

Fergus Craik is a prominent cognitive psychologist known for his pioneering work on memory. Alongside Endel Tulving, he developed the levels of processing framework, demonstrating through experiments in 1975 that semantic processing leads to deeper, more durable encoding than visual or acoustic processing.

Fergus Craik

Richard Atkinson is an American psychologist and academic administrator. In 1968, alongside Richard Shiffrin, he proposed the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, which describes human memory as a computer-like system where information sequentially passes through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Richard Atkinson

Richard Shiffrin is an American cognitive scientist and professor of cognitive science. In 1968, alongside Richard Atkinson, he co-developed the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, which describes memory structure and control processes across sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Richard Shiffrin

There have been a number of psychologists who have contributed to the study of memory. These include:
- Karl Lashley
- Hermann Ebbinghaus 

University of Chicago

New Mexico Highlands University

Trinity College (CT)

Memory can be defined as the system or process responsible for storing learned information so that it can be utilized at a later time.

Definition of Memory

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Gene RbAp48 synthesizes protein RbAp48, which is part of a group of proteins in the brain known as the CREB complex. These proteins are an important part of turning on the gene expression necessary for  converting short-term memory to long-term memory.

Gene RbAp48

Human memory is not a perfect recording device; it is flexible and susceptible to numerous errors. These inaccuracies can lead to feelings of frustration or embarrassment and have significant real-world consequences, such as the demonstrated unreliability of eyewitness testimony in legal contexts.

Problems with Memory

Refer to a way or technique that facilitates the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory.

Memory-Enhancing Strategy

Memory operates through three fundamental processes that occur in a specific sequence: encoding, followed by storage, and finally retrieval. This flow is often visualized as a linear progression, where information must be encoded before it can be stored, and stored before it can be retrieved.

Processes Involved in Memory

* Sensory memory
* Short-term memory
* Long-term memory
  * Implicit (Non-Declerative)
    * Semantic memory
    * Episodic memory
  * Explicit (Declerative)
    * Procedural memory
    * Associative memory
    * Non-associative memory
    * Priming

Types of Memory

A hypothetical scenario illustrating the critical role of memory in daily life involves imagining a day without any retained knowledge. In this state, fundamental tasks such as getting dressed would be impossible, as one would not recall how to use buttons or zippers. Simple personal hygiene like brushing teeth or tying shoes would need to be relearned. Furthermore, the ability to recognize familiar faces, one's own home, or even the concept of basic objects like a bed would be lost. Essential survival activities, like finding and preparing food, would become insurmountable challenges, demonstrating that memory is foundational to personal identity, autonomy, and basic functioning.

Hypothetical Scenario of Life Without Memory

The study of memory revolves around several key inquiries: How is information processed and stored? What are the different types of memory and their characteristics? What are the mechanisms for retrieving stored information? And what causes the loss of memories, or forgetting? These questions guide the exploration of memory functions.

Fundamental Questions in Memory Research

The framework for understanding memory often involves viewing it as an information processing system, which draws a parallel to the functioning of a computer. This analogy helps in conceptualizing how information is systematically encoded, stored, and retrieved by the brain.

Memory as an Information Processing System

An engram is the theoretical physical trace or representation of a memory within the brain. Early researchers like Karl Lashley did not find evidence of the engram, which led him to formulate the equipotentiality hypothesis. However, modern psychologists are making progress in locating these physical memory traces, particularly by investigating the role of synapses in neural circuits.

Engram

In contrast to the idea that memory is distributed throughout the entire brain, modern scientific understanding posits that memory functions are localized. This means that specific parts of the brain, and even particular neurons within those areas, are primarily responsible for forming and storing memories. This view gained traction through research conducted after Karl Lashley's initial explorations.

Localization of Memory

Contrary to the earlier belief that memory involves the entire brain, research following Lashley's work has demonstrated that memory functions are localized. Specific brain regions and even individual neurons play key roles in forming memories. The primary structures identified as crucial for memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex.

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