University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Sexism is a form of prejudice and discrimination directed at individuals based on their sex. While it often involves men holding biases against women, sexism can be expressed by any person toward any sex. It can be subtle and hard to recognize, frequently manifesting through societal expectations about gender roles (e.g., women as primary caretakers) and prescribed behaviors (e.g., women should be passive and nurturing).

Sexism

Which of the following statements best describes the impact of sexism?

Which of the following scenarios is an example of subtle sexism?

Which of the following actions can be considered an example of institutional sexism?

A historical example of gender discrimination involves the psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins. In the late 1880s, despite completing all the necessary requirements for a PhD at Harvard and being recognized as a highly capable professor, the university refused to award her the degree solely because she was a woman.

Example of Gender Discrimination: Mary Whiton Calkins at Harvard

A common manifestation of sexism involves gender role expectations, which are societal beliefs about the roles individuals should occupy based on their sex. For instance, the expectation that women should be the primary caretakers of the household is a form of sexism rooted in traditional gender roles.

Gender Role Expectations as a Form of Sexism

Sexism can manifest as expectations for how individuals should behave based on their gender. For example, women are often expected to be friendly, passive, and nurturing. When they deviate from these prescribed behaviors by acting assertively or unfriendly, they may face social disapproval for violating their expected gender role.

Behavioral Expectations as a Form of Sexism

The 'double bind' is a phenomenon in which women face contradictory expectations that put them in a no-win situation, particularly in professional settings. For instance, when female job applicants self-promote, they may be perceived as competent but are often disliked and less likely to be hired because they violate the gender expectation of modesty. This penalizes them for both conforming to and challenging traditional gender roles, contributing to wage and employment inequality.

Double Bind in Sexism

Beyond individual attitudes and behaviors, sexism can be embedded within the structures of a society. This societal-level sexism influences major institutions and processes, leading to systemic disadvantages in areas such as hiring, employment opportunities, and education.

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